Humanism to Sovereignty handwritten notes pdf in English

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Most Important Humanism to Sovereignty Question Answer

Humanism to Sovereignty Introduction.

Niccolo Machiavelli was born in Florence, (Italy) in 1469 in a family with modest means. His father was a jurist. Machiavelli as a child could not receive proper education and he studied the Latin classics, especially on Roman history under the guidance of his father. As he grew young he joined the government of Florence as the secretary of Chancery. In this new capacity he got a chance to handle the departments of war and interior. Most of the diplomatic correspondent also passed through him. But with the change of power Machiavelli was not only obliged to leave the job but was thrown in the prison on a charm of conspiracy on an account of his failure to side with the new rulers.
In 1513 Machiavelli produced his masterpiece „The Prince‟. Eight years later he
produced „Discourses‟ in 1521.
1.1 Unit Objectives
– After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:
1. Influence on Machiavelli
2. Human Nature
3. The impact of Renaissance on Machiavelli
4. Machiavelli‟s separation of Politics and Ethics
1.2 Influences on Machiavelli:
Machiavelli since his early life has been influenced by number of factors which can be seen in his philosophy some of the factors which influenced the thinking and philosophy of Machiavelli deserve mention under the following headings.
(a) Conditions in Italy: At the time of Machiavelli the Italian peninsula was divided into a number of small but independent states which were constantly at war. These states possessed different forms of governments; while some were republics the other were ruled by despotic rulers. No doubt by the beginning of the sixteenth century some sort of consolidation of these states had been achieved but still they were divided into five groups viz. kingdom of Naples. Territory of Roman Catholic Church, the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Florence. Apart from the internal dissension amongst these states there was a serious threat to their existence due to presence of strong states like France and Spain on the borders. Machiavelli ardently desired to unity these warring states and makes them sufficiently strong so that they could deal with the foreign power effectively. With this end, Machiavelli wrote books like Art of War, the Discourse on Livy and the Prince in which he laid down the principles which he wanted these states to follow, so that they could prosper and flourish. Though Machiavelli hailed from Florence, a Republic, he pleaded for a strong ruler who could unite the country and expel the foreign invaders. He particularly considered the papacy as a great obstacle in the way of secular integration and supported gradual transfer of power from the church of the monarch.
(b) Impact of Republic: The Renaissance Movement which stood for the revival of
ancient values and culture also exercised profound influence on Machiavelli because this movement was strongest in Florence. This movement not only revived that was ancient and had been forgotten during the medieval period, but also created a consciousness of life, a new sense of liberty, and new values of life. Man became the center of all study and God was relegated to the background. This was a sort of revolt against the authority of the Church. The impact of Renaissance on Machiavelli is quite evident from strong plea for gradual transfer of power from the church to the state.
(c) Emergency of strong Monarchies: the emergency of strong monarchs who had concentrated the entire political power in their own hands, which earlier rested with the feudatories and corporations, also left a deep impact on Machiavelli. Though the concentration, of absolute powers in the hands of the rulers meant a death knell of the medieval representation institutions, Machiavelli saw in it as the only remedy for the unification of Italy. Apart from these contemporary influences, Machiavelli was also influenced by the writings of Aristotle and Marsiglio. He learnt the idea of separation of ethics and politics from Aristotle. The other important things which he borrowed from Aristotle were the idea that the state was the highest organization of human beings. The three fold division of the states as Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy, and the famous historical method. Likewise he felt the influence of Marsiglio in so far the idea of
secularism and the political utility of religion are concerned. But without any doubt, he felt the maximum impact of the contemporary
conditions. It has been rightly said of Machiavelli that he was the epitome of his times. In fact hardly any other thinker has been more deeply influenced by the contemporary politics as Machiavelli. Sabine also says “Clear and broad as his vision of politics was Machiavelli was still in a peculiar sense an Italian of the first quarter of sixteenth century. Had he written in any other time and place, his conception of politics must have been significantly differently”.

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Most Important Humanism to Sovereignty Question Answer

Machiavelli’s conception of Human Nature

Machiavelli‟s concept of Human Nature was identical to John Calvin and Thomas Hobbes as he also alike them didn‟t believe in the goodness of human beings and human Nature. The individual, according to Machiavelli, was wicked, selfish and egoistic. He was fundamentally weak, ungrateful, exhibitionist, artificial, anxious to avoid danger and excessively desirous of gain. Lacking the honesty and justice, he was ready to act in a manner that was detrimental to the community. It was only under compulsion or when there was personal gain that an individual was ready to do good. Being essentially anti social anarchical, selfish, greedy and sensual, the individual would readily forgive the murder of his father, but never the seizure of property. He desire power, glory and material well-being. Elsewhere, Machiavelli observed that the desire for novelty, fear and love dictated human actions. Individual establish a government with the strongest and the most courageous becoming law givers and leaders as they desire personal safety and security of possessions. Like Aristotle, he believed that the government made the individual just and fair. Machiavelli conceived human beings as being basically restless, ambitious, aggressive and acquisitive, in a state of constant strife and anarchy. They were discontented and dissatisfied, for human needs were unlimited, but fortune limited their possessions and capacity for enjoyment. Under such circumstance, politics got “plagued by the dilemma of limited goods and limitless ambition”. Interestingly, Machiavelli presumed that human nature remained constant, for history moved in a cyclical way, alternating between growth and decay. This enabled one to discern general laws of political behavior with a view to maximizing one‟s gain. He observed that there was not much difference between how individuals lived and how they ought to live, for one who sacrificed what had to be done in favor of what ought to be done normally sowed the seeds of destruction rather than preservation. Furthermore, Machiavelli pointed out that the human mind tended to glorify the past, decry the present and hope for a better future. Like Aristotle, Machiavelli characterized the individual as a political animal. While Aristotle implied the innate
sociability of the human being, Machiavelli referred to the individual‟s love for power, reputation, keenness to establish superiority over others, and the innate desire to control and dominates others. However, Machiavelli confined these traits to the elite. He did not like Hobbes; see the desire for power and domination as a universal aspiration. Machiavelli recognized the importance of order provided by a stable, lawful political community consisting of public-spirited and virtuous citizens. Such an arrangement fulfilled the human need of being admired, respected and remembered. A ruler who preserved the state without undermining or flouting laws and or inflicting harm
attained fame and respect. On the contrary, the absence of civic virtue led to moral degradation and corruption.

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